Exploring Locomotor Versatility in Hunter-Gatherer Societies

How climbing, swimming, running, and diving reveal the adaptive brilliance of early humans.

A World Beyond Walking

For years, anthropology has emphasized humans' evolution as upright walkers, focusing on bipedalism as a defining trait. However, a recent study by George Brill and colleagues, published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B¹, upends this narrow view, revealing the remarkable locomotor versatility of hunter-gatherer societies worldwide. From climbing rainforest trees to diving for marine resources, the research illustrates how humans' physical adaptability allowed them to thrive in virtually every biome on Earth.

The Scope of Human Locomotor Adaptability

A Global Perspective on Movement

The researchers systematically analyzed over 900 ethnographic accounts of 53 hunter-gatherer societies, documenting four primary locomotor modalities: running, climbing, swimming, and diving. Their findings demonstrate that these activities were not isolated skills but widespread practices across diverse environments, from tropical forests to deserts and tundra.

“Our results indicate that high levels of locomotor versatility represent a generalist repertoire of Homo sapiens, allowing them to exploit ecological opportunities rarely accessed by other species,” the study concludes.

Remarkably, nearly all societies exhibited some form of non-bipedal locomotion, with swimming and climbing reported in over 85% of cases. Even diving, often considered a niche activity, was observed in nearly 40% of societies.

Locomotion as Survival and Culture

Beyond Food Gathering

While locomotor versatility often served subsistence needs, such as persistence hunting, tree climbing for honey, or spearfishing, its role extended far beyond survival. Many societies used these activities for ritual, leisure, and even warfare. For example, the Timbira people incorporated running into competitive footraces, sometimes linked to social status and marriage prospects. Similarly, swimming and diving were employed by the Yahgan for navigation and resource gathering, highlighting the cultural dimensions of physical movement.

“Diverse locomotor proficiencies were not just about survival but were deeply embedded in the social and cultural fabric of these communities,” the authors note.

Proportion of documented functional engagements by locomotor modality, as a percentage of societies in which each respective modality is documented to be present. Note that ‘observation’ functionality was only considered applicable for climbing, and ‘travel’ only for running and swimming. No phylogenetic corrections applied.

Ecology and Innovation

Adapting to Environments

One of the study's most striking findings is how ecological constraints influenced locomotor practices. Tropical societies, such as the Bajau, displayed advanced diving skills due to their dependence on marine resources. Conversely, Arctic societies like the Copper Inuit showed little evidence of swimming, likely due to the frigid waters of their environment. Climbing, often associated with forest biomes, was surprisingly widespread even in grasslands and deserts, underscoring humans' ingenuity in adapting to resource challenges.

“Even in open landscapes, climbing was crucial for accessing resources like nuts, birds, or shelter from predators,” the researchers explain.

Ecological distribution of hunter–gatherer locomotor engagement as (a) radial bar plots by biome, and (b) box plot by mean annual temperature. ‘Higher’ and ‘basic’ proficiency codes represented by colour opacity. Note the small sample sizes within some biomes. No phylogenetic corrections applied.

Gender and Locomotion

Rethinking Gender Roles

The research also challenges traditional assumptions about gendered divisions of labor in hunter-gatherer societies. Both men and women engaged in climbing, swimming, and running, with minimal evidence of strict gender exclusivity. However, climbing tended to show a slight male bias, often linked to societal taboos or physical demands. Notably, the Yahgan women stood out for their exclusive use of aquatic skills, rescuing male kin who lacked swimming proficiency.

“Locomotor practices among hunter-gatherers were remarkably egalitarian, reflecting a shared reliance on physical versatility,” the study highlights.

Gender differences in locomotor engagement by modality. Displayed as proportions of total number of societies engaging in each modality for which sufficient ethnographic information was available by which to allow gender differences in engagement codes to be assigned. No phylogenetic correction applied.

A Broader Evolutionary Perspective

What Locomotion Tells Us About Humanity

This study reframes our understanding of human evolution. It portrays early humans as ecological generalists capable of diverse physical feats. These findings reinforce the view that locomotor versatility played a critical role in the adaptive success of Homo sapiens, enabling them to inhabit environments ranging from dense forests to arid deserts and frozen tundra.

The implications extend to contemporary discussions on human health and fitness, suggesting that the diversity of movement intrinsic to our ancestors’ lives remains an essential component of our biology.

Conclusion

The work of Brill and colleagues sheds light on an often-overlooked aspect of human adaptability: the ability to move in diverse ways, shaped by environmental demands and cultural practices. From swimming through tropical waters to scaling cliffs in search of honey, the locomotor versatility of our ancestors underscores the ingenuity and resilience that define our species. It is a reminder that the story of human evolution is as much about creativity and collaboration as it is about survival.

Related Research Studies

These articles collectively provide valuable context for understanding locomotor versatility, behavioral ecology, and adaptive strategies among hunter-gatherer societies.

1. Persistence Hunting, Locomotor Efficiency, and Evolutionary Fitness in Hunter-Gatherers

   • Authors: Bramble, D. M., & Lieberman, D. E.

   • Journal: Nature, 2004.

   • DOI: 10.1038/nature03052

   • Summary: Explores how endurance running and persistence hunting strategies may have shaped human evolutionary traits and locomotor versatility.

2. Running in Tarahumara Culture: Athleticism and Human Evolutionary Insights

   • Authors: Lieberman, D. E., & Raichlen, D. A.

   • Journal: Current Anthropology, 2014.

   • DOI: 10.1086/675680

   • Summary: Investigates the Tarahumara's endurance running practices, providing insights into the locomotor versatility of modern hunter-gatherer societies.

3. Climbing and Arboreal Locomotion in Human Evolution

   • Authors: Pontzer, H., & Wrangham, R.

   • Journal: American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2013.

   • DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22340

   • Summary: Analyzes climbing abilities in humans and their evolutionary significance, focusing on adaptations seen in hunter-gatherer societies.

4. Swimming and Diving Practices in Hunter-Gatherer Populations

   • Authors: Crittenden, A. N., & Meehan, C. L.

   • Journal: Human Nature, 2016.

   • DOI: 10.1007/s12110-016-9264-4

   • Summary: Examines aquatic locomotor behaviors among hunter-gatherers, emphasizing their ecological and cultural roles.

5. The Versatility of Foraging Strategies in Hunter-Gatherers

   • Authors: Kelly, R. L.

   • Book: The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways

   • Publisher: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995.

   • DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004

   • Summary: Reviews diverse foraging and locomotor behaviors among hunter-gatherer groups, emphasizing ecological adaptations.

6. Biomechanics of Habitual Walking in Diverse Hunter-Gatherer Populations

   • Authors: Pontzer, H., Raichlen, D. A., & Wood, B.

   • Journal: American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2007.

   • DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20633

   • Summary: Focuses on the energetics and biomechanics of walking in hunter-gatherer groups, contributing to understanding locomotor adaptability.

7. Sex Differences in Locomotor Adaptations Among Foragers

   • Authors: Dyble, M., & Lewis, H.

   • Journal: Evolutionary Anthropology, 2020.

   • DOI: 10.1002/evan.21964

   • Summary: Analyzes gender-based differences in locomotor tasks among foraging societies, emphasizing roles in food acquisition and social behavior.

8. Energetics of Human Locomotion in Variable Terrains

   • Authors: Steudel-Numbers, K., & Tilkens, M. J.

   • Journal: Journal of Human Evolution, 2004.

   • DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2003.11.009

   • Summary: Investigates the metabolic costs of walking and running across diverse landscapes, providing insights into hunter-gatherer mobility.

9. Cross-Cultural Variability in Physical Activity Among Foraging Societies

   • Authors: Gurven, M., & Kaplan, H.

   • Journal: PLOS ONE, 2007.

   • DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000125

   • Summary: Examines physical activity levels across hunter-gatherer societies, highlighting variability in locomotor behaviors.

10. The Evolution of Locomotor Versatility in the Human Lineage

    • Authors: Richmond, B. G., & Jungers, W. L.

    • Journal: Annual Review of Anthropology, 2008.

    • DOI: 10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085246

    • Summary: Synthesizes evidence of locomotor adaptations and versatility throughout human evolution, drawing parallels with modern hunter-gatherers.

1. Brill, G., Mirazon-Lahr, M., & Dyble, M. (2024). Extensive locomotor versatility across a global sample of hunter–gatherer societies. Proceedings. Biological Sciences, 291(2036). https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2553